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China Augments Beidou Constellation & Bombs Home

26 Dec: China launched a Long March-3B with a Yuanzheng-1 upper stage from Xichang with two backup BeiDou-3 navigation satellites (BeiDou-3 MEO-25 & MEO-26). Both satellites were sent to medium earth orbit (MEO) and are the 57th and 58th of the BeiDou family and the second and the third to act as a backup satellites…

Author Greg Gillinger Published July 28, 2025

– MEO-25 and -26 are in 21,532 x 22,193km orbits with an inclination of 55°.

– The satellites were developed by the China Academy of Space Technology (CAST) under CASC, the country’s main space contractor.

– Beidou is China’s own global navigation satellite system (GNSS) to rival the U.S. GPS, Europe’s Galileo and Russia’s GLONASS systems. China completed its construction in mid-2020.

-China embarked on building the BeiDou constellation in 1996 after it suspected 2 of its 3 missile tests over Taiwan failed due to their reliance on GPS.

– According to one PLA Colonel at the time: “It was a great shame for the PLA … an unforgettable humiliation.”

-In 1996, China decided to build its own navigation system, to be completed within 25 years, to establish truly independent military command and control, and precision missile guidance and tracking.

– The end result was the establishment of the independent GNSS and PNT systems, the PLA Strategic Support Force, and the development of China’s missile capabilities, to include cruise missiles, ballistic missiles, and hypersonic missiles under the PLA Rocket Force.

-Watch short Video on the history of BeiDou.

BeiDou-3 MEO-25 and MEO-26 mission overview (@SpaceIntel101 via X)

BeiDou-3 Constellation - 36 Active Satellites (28 MEO, 4 GEO and 4 IGSO) (@AuerSusan via X)

BeiDou Satellite Assembly (NASA Space Flight)

Mission Patch (NASA Space Flight)

“Jake From State Farm Insurance is Holding on Line 1” - booster impact scene (@AuerSusan via X)

“Jake From State Farm Insurance is Holding on Line 1” - booster debris (@AuerSusan via X)

Previous in this issue Issue overview Next in this issue China Launches 3x KZ-1A w/ 12 Tianmu Satellites

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China Launches 3x KZ-1A w/ 12 Tianmu Satellites

Author Greg Gillinger Published July 28, 2025

25/27 Dec 23 & 5 Jan 24: China launched 3 Kuaizhou-1A (KZ-1A) rockets from Jiuquan, each with four Tianmu-1 meteorological satellites. The first launch placed the Tianmu-1 11-14 satellites into orbit, the second carried Tianmu-1 19-22 and the third carried Tianmu-1 15-18 satellites. There are now 22 Tianmu satellites in Low Earth Orbit. Per official Chinese sources the Tianmu constellation “will be mainly used to provide commercial meteorological data services”. Launch 1 Video. Launch 2 Video. Launch 3 Video.

– All 12 new Tianmu-1 satellites are in a similar orbit with the other Tianmu satellites, 528x512km and 95.1° inclination.

-The Tianmu 1 constellation is intended to provide global commercial meteorological data services, including numerical weather forecasting, typhoon monitoring and forecasting, and climate change research.

-China launched all 14 Tainmu satellites in 2023.

Tianmu 01 and 02 launched in January 2023 on a GalaxySpace CERES-1 rocket.
Tianmu satellites 03-06 launched on a KZ-1A back in March 2023.
Tianmu satellites 07-10 launched on a KZ-1A in July 2023

All launches were from Jiuquan

– The final number of satellites for the Tianmu constellation is unknown. However, Gao Wei, strategic operations director of the Tianmu 1 constellation, told CCTV+ “By 2025, our Tianmu 1 system will be basically completed and will provide stable service for various user categories.”

Tianmu Constellation, January 2024

Previous in this issue China Augments Beidou Constellation & Bombs Home Next in this issue LM-11 Sea Launch of 3 Shiyan-24C Satellites

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LM-11 Sea Launch of 3 Shiyan-24C Satellites

25 Dec: China launched a Long March-11 from a sea-based platform off the coast of Yangjiang, Guangdong Province, China. The rocket carried 3 Shiyan-24C satellites to Low Earth Orbit. According to official sources, the three Shiyan-24C satellites “will be mainly used for space science and technology experiments”. The…

Author Greg Gillinger Published July 28, 2025

– The three Shiyan-24C satellites are in a 541x544km orbit with a 95.6° inclination.

– The satellites are expected to contribute to a multitude of experiments, including those related to Earth observation and telecommunications. The satellites’ specific scientific objectives have not been publicly detailed.

–Shiyan 24A & 24B were launched on the 2nd CAS Space Kinetica-1 back in June, a launch where most of the payloads are still not identified.

– Interestingly, the SY-24 satellites are nearly co-planar with the SJ-6-05A/B satellites launched on 9 Dec 2021.

-In Feb 2022 Feb, analysis from LEO Labs indicated SJ-6 05A and 05B had setup for rendezvous and proximity operations (RPO).

Long March-11 sea launch vehicle

Shiyan-24C mission patch

Shiyan-24C 01, 02 and 03 shown nearly co-planar with Shijian-6 05B

Previous in this issue China Launches 3x KZ-1A w/ 12 Tianmu Satellites Next in this issue China: More Internet Technology Demonstrators

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China: More Internet Technology Demonstrators

Author Greg Gillinger Published July 28, 2025

30 Dec: China continued to launch internet test demonstration satellites as it used a Long March-2C from Jiuquan. As with other internet demonstration launches there is confusion as to how many were actually on-board. While China announced the launch of a single “satellite,” the space catalog is tracking 3 objects, only one of which is listed “active” and the other two as “unknown.” For what it’s worth, the launch patch has 3 stars. Launch Video.

– The Chinese named the satellite(s) Weixing Hulianwang Jishu Shiyan (WHJS) which translates to “Satellite Internet Technology Demonstration Satellite,” or something similar.

– The launch placed all three objects into a ~940x930km orbit with a 50° inclination.

– More observations are required to determine if all three objects are maneuvering/operational.

– This launch appears to be similar to another WHJS launch (2023-095) on 9 July 2023. There was initial confusion regarding the number of satellites on that mission as well, with China announcing a single satellite, but actually 2 maneuvering objects were on board. That launch patch has 2 stars.

– Both launches used a LM-2C with a YS-1 upper stage from Jiuquan. However, the 30 Dec launch (2023-212) resulted in the payloads being deployed to a lower altitude (SMA 934.5km vs 1,111.4km). The inclinations are also different 2023-212 at 50° compared to 86.5° for 2023-095.

– China conducted 5 Internet Test Demonstrator launches in the last 6 months of 2023:

1. 9 Jun 2023: Longjian-3 satellite from Jiuquan using a KZ-1A. (471.9km/49.1°)

2. 9 Jul 2023: 2 WHJS satellites from Jiuquan using a LM-2C with a YS-1 upper stage (1,111.3km/86.5°)

3. 23 Nov 2023: Chuangxing-20 01,02,03 from Xichang using a LM-2D with SY-3 upper stage (1,104.2km/50°)

4. 5 Dec 2023: Unknown satellite from Yellow Sea using a Jielong-3 (913.3km/86.5°)

5. 30 Dec 2023: 3 WHJS satellites from Jiuquan using a LM-2C with a YS-1 upper stage (936.4km/50°)

December 2023 WHJS launch patch (NASA Space Flight)

July 2023 WHJS launch patch (NASA Space Flight)

Big Red Board-Int: blow-up of satellite featured after December launch (NASA Space Flight)

Three objects from the 2023-212 launch compared with two objects from the 2023-095 launch

Previous in this issue LM-11 Sea Launch of 3 Shiyan-24C Satellites Next in this issue YG-41 Settles In & An Overview of China’s GEO Imagers

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YG-41 Settles In & An Overview of China’s GEO Imagers

27 Dec: China's Yaogan-41 GEO-based imager has settled into geostationary orbit at 123.3°E longitude. This places the spacecraft, with rumored 5m imagery resolution , just east of Gaofen-13-01. Gaofen-13-1 and Yaogan-41 now bracket the island of Taiwan. Yaogan-41's orbit is inclined 5° while Gaofen-13-1 is only…

Author Greg Gillinger Published July 28, 2025

27 Dec: China’s Yaogan-41 GEO-based imager has settled into geostationary orbit at 123.3°E longitude. This places the spacecraft, with rumored 5m imagery resolution, just east of Gaofen-13-01. Gaofen-13-1 and Yaogan-41 now bracket the island of Taiwan. Yaogan-41’s orbit is inclined 5° while Gaofen-13-1 is only inclined 0.2°. Increasing the Yaogan-41’s inclination will periodically bring it closer to Taiwan and other targets, presumably resulting in better imagery resolution. Of course, the higher inclination also takes the satellite further south and negatively impact resolution as well. China launched YG-41 on 15 Dec 2023 using a LM-5 with an extended payload fairing. Launch Video.

– YG-41 is China’s 4th optical satellite in GEO. In addition to the previously mentioned Gaofen-13-1, YG-41 joins the civilian Gaofen-4 (2015) and Gaofen-13-2 (2023). China also recently added the world’s first SAR imaging satellite in GEO, Ludi Tance 4-01.

-Chinese scientists have briefed that Gaofen satellites designated 8 or higher are associated with military/national security missions. All Yaogan designated missions are believed to have military/national security missions.

– Gaofen-13-1 and 13-2 are believed to be capable of 15m resolution imagery.

– China may be experimenting with different inclination values for its GEO-based imagers. China has placed each successive satellite into a higher inclination…GF-4 at .1°, GF-13-1 at .2°, GF-13-2 at 2.4° and now YG-41 at 5°.

– All GEO imagers seem to be in orbits to provide constant surveillance of the Western Pacific and areas of potential conflict. GF-13-1 and YG-41 are located on either side of Taiwan and GF-13-02 is 2° East of Guam and <1° East of the Northern Marianas Islands.

– Ludi-Tance-4-01 is the world’s only GEO-based synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imager and located further west than any of the other GEO imaging satellites. It is also highly inclined at 15.9°, likely to provide the relative motion with the Earth’s surface to enable it’s expected 20m resolution. China classified Ludi-Tance-4 as a civilian satellite, it is unknown if the satellite is being used for military/national security missions.

China’s increasing GEO-based imaging capabilities and select areas of interest

Previous in this issue China: More Internet Technology Demonstrators Next in this issue Highlights: PLA Counterspace Command & Control

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Highlights: PLA Counterspace Command & Control

11 Dec 2023: Kristin Burke of the China Aerospace Studies Institute released her paper exploring command and control of a variety of China's counterspace weapons. Ms Burke poses 2 questions to 6 types of counterspace weapons: 1) Who in the People's Liberation Army (PLA) will operate counterspace weapons in wartime? and…

Author Greg Gillinger Published July 28, 2025

11 Dec 2023: Kristin Burke of the China Aerospace Studies Institute released her paper exploring command and control of a variety of China’s counterspace weapons. Ms Burke poses 2 questions to 6 types of counterspace weapons: 1) Who in the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) will operate counterspace weapons in wartime? and 2) Who will task the operators and how will the operators use counterspace weapons in wartime? Interestingly her research indicates that likely not all counterspace weapons will be operated by the Strategic Support Force (SSF) with many remaining under the command of the Central Military Commission (CMC) or Theater Command (TC) commanders. Excerpts below. Read FULL REPORT for yourself!

– The six categories of counterspace weapons are: 1) Direct Ascent Anti-Satellite Missiles (DA ASAT); 2) Directed Energy Counterspace Weapons; 3) Terrestrially Based Satellite Electronic Jammers; 4) Space-based Grappling Counterspace Weapons; 5) Offensive Cyber Counterspace Weapons; and 6) Space Based Electronic Jammers.

– Limited experimental space-based counterspace weapons are probably operated exclusively by the SSF’s Space Systems Division (SSD).

– People’s Liberation Army (PLA) Theater Command (TC) commanders may have more ease in tasking low-powered directed energy counterspace weapons and some network-electromagnetic spectrum weapons than terrestrially-based satellite electronic jammers.

– It seems that while terrestrially-based satellite electronic jammers are prevalent across the TCs, the CMC must pre-approve specific usage, in order to limit spectrum interference within the People’s Liberation Army (PLA).

– Reversible satellite laser dazzling and weapons to disable systems using space information, such as microwave weapons and network-electromagnetic spectrum weapons, can probably be readily tasked at the TC level.

– There is limited publicly available information to support that the SSF is the service training with direct-ascent anti-satellite (DA-ASAT) missiles. Rather, there is more information to support those missiles may be operated by other PLA services.

– DA-ASAT missiles potentially could be deployed from many more places than expected, the PLA’s primary intention for the missiles is to be a credible deterrent, and only the CMC would cautiously approve their use…there is evidence to indicate that the SSF is not the exclusive owner of those <DA-ASAT> mobile launchers.

– CMC consent for usage of other types of counterspace weapons seems to depend on if the

weapons’ effects go beyond the theater of use.

– CMC probably directs cyberattacks on satellite ground stations in theater, especially attacks to deliver malware to adversary satellites, because of the beyond-theater effects.

– On-orbit satellite jamming is the one counterspace weapon this report found to be operated exclusively by the SSF.

– On-orbit grappling is unlikely to be used as a counterspace weapon until those systems can be miniaturized.

– The PLA seems to be modeling the United States in developing a dedicated unit to conduct defensive and offensive orbital warfare, like Space Force Delta 9, and orbital warfare exercises like Red Skies.

Wartime operation of the People’s Liberation Army’s (PLA’s) counterspace weapons highly likely continues to be spread across PLA services, as well as the Strategic Support Force (SSF)….not all counterspace weapons are managed by the SSF.

Previous in this issue YG-41 Settles In & An Overview of China’s GEO Imagers Next in this issue China: Space War Simulator Unveiled

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China: Space War Simulator Unveiled

Author Greg Gillinger Published July 28, 2025

19 Dec: Chinese military scientists revealed a previously confidential space war-gaming system. According to the developers, the system features a user-friendly design and can simulate and predict the complex process of space combat. This Chinese space war simulator intended not only for the country’s military operations but also for training and enhancing space commanders and warriors on a much more substantial scale. Watch Australian News Report.

– The National University of Defense Technology in Changsha developed the system, as per a paper published in National Defence Technology in October. The paper, authored by a team led by associate professor Zhang Jin, had a section stating that the system has already demonstrated its effectiveness in a secret space mission.

– Over 400 military cadets created over 70 teams in September for a rigorous, two-month competition. Many participating members claimed that these simulated space battles

prepared them for combat and offered them a first-hand experience of operating weapons that they had only studied in technical documents or textbooks.

-One of the system’s most prominent features is that it can make the Earth transparent in the operation interface, thus allowing users in the Eastern Hemisphere to view situations in the Western Hemisphere.

– The researchers also listed a number of challenges they encountered during the development of the space war-gaming system. War in space, they said, offered no real battles as examples. Despite cold war tensions and recent close calls between China and the US in orbit, no true fight has broken out.

– They also wrote of the struggle to secure weapon data. Space weapons are closely guarded secrets, and any misstep in this data could send military strategy astray.

– To ensure the system would run smoothly even in the most challenging moments of war, researchers considered computational complexity while making sure the calculations could be performed on a mobile military computer.

– To achieve this, the scientists employed parallel computing technologies typically used only in supercomputers, improving computational efficiency and enabling inferior military-grade CPUs to produce simulation results within a short time frame.

The Chinese military is actively developing a new generation of anti-satellite weapons, including high-power microwave emission devices and laser guns. Additionally, the Chinese government plans to launch nearly 13,000 low-Earth orbit internet satellites equipped with military payloads to establish a counter-deterrent against the US.

Screen capture from Chinese Space Wargame Application

Previous in this issue Highlights: PLA Counterspace Command & Control Next in this issue China Year in Space 2023

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China Year in Space 2023

There were no shortage of “Year in Review” articles this month. Three in particular are worth your time: 1) Adrian Bell, NASA Space Flight, China's 2023: closing out a busy year amidst preparations for lunar missions ; 2) China Space Monitor, The Year in Chinese Space ; and 3) Andrew Jones, China Space Bulletin: Review…

Author Greg Gillinger Published July 28, 2025

There were no shortage of “Year in Review” articles this month. Three in particular are worth your time: 1) Adrian Bell, NASA Space Flight, China’s 2023: closing out a busy year amidst preparations for lunar missions; 2) China Space Monitor, The Year in Chinese Space; and 3) Andrew Jones, China Space Bulletin: Review of China space activities in 2023. Highlights below.

Adrian Bell: China’s 2023

China launched 66 orbital launches in 2023, of which 64 were successes…very close to the country’s 2022 performance, which saw 64 orbital launches, of which 62 were successful.
46 of the launches used the Long March series. 20 launches were commercial (non-Long March). The LM-2D had the most launches (12).
Commercial Rising: In 2022, about 83% of launches in China were performed by Long March rockets. In 2023, that number went down to 70%. In 2021, it was even higher at 87%.

China Space Monitor: The Year in Chinese Space

China sent 213 payloads into orbit in 2023, an increase from 182 in 2022 and 111 in 2021.
CGSTL was the leader among satellite manufacturers with 48 satellites launched during the year, however CASC would take the lead if we combined all of its subsidiaries (CAST and subsidiaries had ~40, while SAST had 24).
funding levels dropped by around 40% compared to the peak years of 2020-2022, but remained strong at ~¥5.6B, or ~$800M. With that said, average funding round size was the biggest we’ve seen in any year, by far.

2023 saw the record for most satellites launched on a Chinese rocket broken twice in one month. First, on 7 June, CAS Space sent 26 satellites into orbit on its ZK-1A from Jiuquan.

Just about a week later on 15 June, SAST sent a whopping 41 satellites into orbit on a LM-2D, with all 41 built by Chinese remote sensing company CGSTL for their Jilin-1 constellation.
In 2024 expect to see initial deployment of China’s NGSO broadband constellations, likely via batches of satellites launched for China SatNet, Galaxy Space, or SSST.

Andrew Jones: Review of China Space Actitities in 2023

China this year committed to a preliminary plan to put two astronauts on the Moon for a short period to conduct scientific tasks and collect samples by 2030
In April…Space Pioneer became the first (Chinese commercial company) to reach orbit with a liquid rocket: the kerosene-liquid oxygen Tianlong-2. Landspace then marked a global first when the second flight of its Zhuque-2 methane-fuelled rocket achieved orbit.

Workhorse: Long March-2D lifts off (NASASpaceflight)

Rockets and satellites launched by China, 2014-2023 (China Space Monitor)

Fundraising by Chinese commercial space companies (China Space Monitor)

Previous in this issue China: Space War Simulator Unveiled Next in this issue Russia: Launches New Bars-M Imagery Satellite

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Russia: Launches New Bars-M Imagery Satellite

21 Dec: Russia launched a Soyuz-2-1b (also report of 2-1a) rocket lifted off from Plesetsk and successfully delivered a spacecraft for the Ministry of Defense. The spacecraft has since been renamed Kosmos-2573 and could be the latest of 5 Bars-M imagery satellites. Launch Video . - Kosmos-2573 (Bars-M N°5 ) is in a…

Author Greg Gillinger Published July 28, 2025

– Kosmos-2573 (Bars-M N°5) is in a 338 by 499-kilometer orbit with an inclination 97.57°. Interestingly, it is co-planar with Kosmos-2556 which was launched in May 2022.

– The fact that Kosmos-2573 is in the same orbital plane as Kosmos-2556 (Bars-M N°3) is a strong sign that the latter has failed and that the new satellite serves as a replacement.

– Kosmos-2556 significantly lowered its orbit in July 2022 (from about 560 to 500 km), presumably as a result of a decision to operate these satellites at lower altitudes in order to improve their resolution (possibly related to the war in Ukraine).

– After Kosmos-2556 performed one more (minor) orbit correction in October 2022 it has shown no signs of life since (as a reminder, Bars-M N°1 and 2 were also short-lived satellites).

-Assuming Kosmos-2556 is non-operational, Kosmos-2573 brings the total number of working Bars-M satellites to 2, the other being Kosmos-2567 which Russia launched on 23 March 2023.

-Originally designed to support cartography, the first Bars-M launched in 2015. The Bars-M’s main instrument inside the MTsA payload module consists of a dual telescope called OEK Karat, where OEK stands for the Optical Electronic Complex. The triple-lens instrument was developed at the LOMO company in St Petersburg, which also built the main imaging system for the Persona reconnaissance satellite.

–Bars-M satellites are believed to capable of collecting high-resolution images with a ground resolution around 1 meter.

– Bars-M is one of several series of reconnaissance satellites that Russia introduced in recent years in attempts to fill the gap left by the retirement of its obsolete film-return Kometa and Kobal’t-M satellites. Other imaging satellites included the now-ended Persona series and the smaller EMKA.

Bars-M rendering (Russianspaceweb.com)

Kosmos-2556 non-maneuvering since October 2022 (CelesTrak.org)

Bars-M constellation (SpaceAware.io)

Previous in this issue China Year in Space 2023 Next in this issue Russia: Kosmos-2574 Launched

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Russia: Kosmos-2574 Launched

27 Dec: Russia launched a Soyuz 2.1v from Plesetsk carrying a suspected Razbeg imagery satellite. There was some rumor that the satellite might have been a Nevilir inspection satellite , however the launch did not have a Volga upper stage, nor was it placed into an orbit near another satellite. Now the prevailing…

Author Greg Gillinger Published July 28, 2025

27 Dec: Russia launched a Soyuz 2.1v from Plesetsk carrying a suspected Razbeg imagery satellite. There was some rumor that the satellite might have been a Nevilir inspection satellite, however the launch did not have a Volga upper stage, nor was it placed into an orbit near another satellite. Now the prevailing opinions are that Kosmos-2574 is a small imagery satellite capable of .9m ground resolution. Launch Video.

– Kosmos-2574 was launched into a 338 x 498km sun synchronous orbit with an inclination of 97.6°.

– Russia released no information regarding the satellite or its mission.

– Kosmos-2574 is believed to be an EO MKA / Razbeg imagery satellite. There is some confusion regarding if Kosmos-2574 is an EO MKA or Razbeg satellite, and it is not clear what the distinctions are between the two satellite types.

– Kosmos-2574 is at a higher altitude than previous EO MKA satellites (Kosmos-2551, 2555, 2560 and 2568).

– Kosmos-2568 is the only EO-MKA satellite of 4 launched to remain on orbit more than a few weeks. It is currently orbiting at 329x345km.

– Other than Kosmos-2568, Russia has only one other active satellite operating at lower altitudes than Kosmos-2574: Kosmos-2572 (launched 25 Nov 2023).

– Kosmos-2572 is believed to be the new Razdan imagery satellite.

– EO MKA / Razbeg imagery satellites are believed to be a small optical reconnaissance satellites (~150kg) built by VNIIEM. Expected ground resolution is 0.9m.

Kosmos-2574 orbit (SpaceAware.io)

Previous in this issue Russia: Launches New Bars-M Imagery Satellite Next in this issue Paper: Anti-satellite Weapon Tests to Disrupt Large Satellite Constellations

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Paper: Anti-satellite Weapon Tests to Disrupt Large Satellite Constellations

Author Greg Gillinger Published July 28, 2025

28 Dec: Nature Astronomy published a paper by Aaron Boley and Michael Byers, both from the University of British Columbia, which discusses the applicability of conducting a debris-generating kinetic Anti-Satellite Test to disrupt megaconstellation operations. Specifically, the authors modelled the affects of the Russian Cosmos-1408 DA-ASAT test if it had been conducted at the primary operating altitude of SpaceX’s Starlink (550km). Read Full Article.

– Russia hit Cosmos 1408 with a ground-based missile at 480km and produced 1,500 pieces of trackable debris that threatened the International Space Station (ISS) and China’s Tiangong space station.

– Direct-ascent ASAT tests use a missile launched from the ground, sea or air to destroy a satellite or rocket body owned by the testing state, using the tremendous kinetic energy of the collision.

– The debris from the 2021 test created complications for satellites at higher altitudes, including SpaceX’s Starlink ‘megaconstellation’. According to SpaceX, over 1,700 of the 6,873 collision-avoidance maneuvers performed by its satellites in the six months from 1 December 2021 to 31 May 2022 were due to Cosmos 1408 debris.

– This outcome raises the possibility that a state may conduct a ‘test’ with the intent of disrupting the space operations of another state.

– For Starlink, SpaceX reports using a collision probability threshold of 1 in 100,000 for conducting collision-avoidance maneuvers.

– If the 2021 target satellite had been closer to the Starlink 550km shell, instead of one at an altitude of 480km…the authors estimate

Starlink maneuvers would increase from 24/day to 240/day…an order-of-magnitude more conjunctions. Projecting over 151 days, the expected number of conjunctions would be 36,000.

Instead of being designed to physically damage satellites, the creation of fragments through a carefully crafted ASAT weapon test would disrupt a megaconstellation by requiring a very much larger number of collision-avoidance maneuvers. This would lead to increased fuel use, shorter satellite lifetimes and possibly the degradation of services. A high frequency of maneuvers also brings the possibility of errors or maneuver conflicts, and with this a much greater likelihood of collisions.